Handguns in Households with Children Essay -- essays research papers

Handguns in Households with ChildrenGuns in America argon a problem as bad as the drug problem 43% of households that have chelaren have handguns in them 10 children die every day from handguns, approximately one every 2 hours. That is the same of a classroom of children every two days. P arnts do not realize that children get the physical capacity to reach and discharge a firearm long forwards the ability to understand the potential consequences of these actions. Parents who insist on keeping guns in the home should be urged strongly to store their firearms unloaded and locked in a warrant place. Actions like these will reduce the probability of children being killed by a firearm. The presence of handguns in households with children frequently leads to fatal accidents, felo-de-ses, and murders.The majority of handguns kept in homes are NOT kept invulner fittedly locked up, simply be buzz off people are stupid enough to believe that they need to be able to access that gun as f ast as possible in case of emergency. These people keep their guns in bedside drawers, closets, under mattresses. Most of the children who are involved in fatal accidents are older children. In 1999, the most recent year which data are available, 34 children under the age of 5 died in gun accidents. Among children aged 5-9, at that place were 56 fatal gun accidents and among children aged 10-14, 146 fatal accidents. For instance, on July 21, 1999, in Lakepark, Florida, a 6-year-old boy fatally shot his 5-year-old brother Corey Andrew Wilson, as the boys played with a shotgun they found under a bed in their grandparents bedroom. The best way to reduce gun risks is to remove guns from home.Candamo 2Children suicide has rattling become a problem of outbreak proportions in America that must be addressed from every direction. As numerous studies have shown, children use guns in roughly two out of every three-suicide attempt, and handguns are used in 70% of these. In 1998 alone, 1200 yo uth in America committed suicide with a gun, the same of one every seven hours. Children suicide attempts are usually impulsive acts, and the easier it is to carry out. Using a firearm in a suicide attempt drastically increases the likelihood that the attempt will be fatal. Simply having a gun in the home actually increases the chances of suic... ...ban or recall hundreds of products that cause injury or death to very small numbers of children, yet they will not pass laws making guns safer because of the NRA. Maybe people may not be able to fight the NRA on the national level, but there are many cities and states that have already taken one step forward. such a small number, however, is not enough to convince the politicians that they dont need the NRAs money or votes. The children need their help.In conclusion, despite the guidelines regarding safe firearm storage in homes with children, a study reports less than half of gun-owning parents store their firearms safely. Many parent s underestimate the risk of leaving their children in the home with an unlocked and loaded firearm. The gap between awareness and reality is particularly great for gun-owning parents. More gun-owning parents trust their children with a loaded gun and believe that their young child can tell the difference between a toy gun and a real gun. And in many cases they will not be able to tell the difference. So to have handguns in homes around children will sooner or later produce fatal accidents, suicides, and even murders.

Principles for a Pedagogy in the Technological Era :: Argumentative Argument Technology Papers

Principles for a Pedagogy in the Technological EraI argue that humanity is initiating a new historical era the Technological Era. opus this mutation opens to man extraordinary possibilities of spiritual and material progress, it is irreversible and threatens to destroy him. The eminent danger can be relieved only by adequately preparing the younger generation. In what follows, the principles which guide this preparation atomic number 18 enunciated and justified. The nuclear importance which should be given to moral discipline is emphasized, and the cultural and sociological obstacles opposed to it are analyzed. Fin solelyy, the means to overcome these obstacles are indicated. 1. At the dawn of a new era, characterised by the vertiginous multiplication of machines on the face of the Earth, competing for space and invading all realms of nature, and which increasingly restrain and condition Mans daily life, a clearer, lucid vision of the new world which is forming before us is vital .This is the greatest social duty of all intellectuals, but namely and above all, it is the greatest duty of universities researchers.2. The theme is extremely vast, yet we cannot forsake having a broad perspective, since without it, it would not be possible to determine a course that would otherwise be unilateral and simplified. Therefore, we entrust only point out the most relevant topics.3. To begin with, we wish to accentuate the ready and generalised practical interest of theoretical reflection which is in direct opposition with the pragmatic sufficiency of politicians (reflection alone could alter this attitude), especially when they exercise their tragic office in an imprudent manner, not advised, as Max Weber so wisely forewarned, that it is proper of their profession to make serious public decisions which whitethorn have unpredictable consequences, but for which they are, notwithstanding, still responsible.4. As it is known, neither politicians nor civil servants have th e obligation to create culture or to educate. It is, however, their obligation to establish the conditions which will permit that cultural life flourishes and that the new generations be prepared to achieve the destiny they choose in the best possible manner, as well as providing them with guidelines which will lead them to being concerned and just citizens.5. The times in which we live are still governed by economicist criteria, it not being easily translucent that these criteria are, in essence, instrumental. We witness a mythical over-valorisation of the power of money, which lead some to unwisely think that the solution for the grave problems experienced today in the education system depends on the amount of funds which is attributed to it.

The Forgotten: Uninsured Children Essays -- Health Care

This paper is going to define oppression, describe an oppressed group and a framework. Oppression is defined as unjust or cruel exercise of authority or power or a sense of being weighed down in body or mind (Merriam-Webster Dictionary, 2010) The oppressed population that I am going to describe is uninsured children with a disability. Typically, children obtain health insurance coverage through their parents. If parents miss health insurance, so will their children. This paper will discuss the lifey problem of the inability of children with a disability to obtain health insurance. The primary social welfare issue to be addressed is the absence of affordable, comprehensive health insurance for children from birth to eighteen. When a child is uninsured it often means that slew will postpone necessary care and forego preventive care - such as childhood immunizations and routine check-ups-completely. Because the uninsured usually have no regular doctor and limited access to prescription medications, they are more likely to be hospitalized for health conditions that could be avoided. One example, regarding this was told by a checkup student. American Medical Student Association told a story of a young boy with a heart defect which made him vulnerable to infections. His mother, a janitor, couldnt afford to take him to the dentist when he developed a tooth infection. By the time his pain grew intolerable his heart was infected with bacteria from the tooth infection. Spiking fevers, fatigue and knocker pain developed a few weeks later. He arrived at the ER with sub acute bacterial endocarditic, which required six weeks of preventable hospitalization. Damage to the boys heart was irreversible. The conceptual framework... ..., H. J., & Stoesz, D. (2005). American social welfare policy a pluralistic approach. Boston Pearson Education, Inc.Merriam-Webster Dictionary, (2010). Retrieved June 1, 2010, from http//www.merriam-webster.com/Missouri Foundation for Health. (2004). Economic and health benefits of Missouri Medicaid. Retrieved June 4, 2010, from http//www.mffh.orgNational alinement of Healthcare. (2004). Facts on health insurance coverage. Retrieved April19, 2005, from http//www.nchc.org/facts/coverage.pdfNational Coalition of Healthcare. (2004). Health insurance cost. Retrieved February 3, 2005, from http//www.nchc.org/facts/cost.shtmlNational Health Policy Forum. (2005). The basics Medicaid. Retrieved June 1, 2010, from http//www.nhpf.orgUnited States Department of Labor. (2010) Retrieved June 4, 2010 from http//www.dol.gov/

photosynthesis :: essays research papers

Organisms Depend Upon PhotosynthesisA. Organisms Depend Upon Photosynthesis 1.Photosynthetic organisms (algae, plants and a few other organisms) serve as ultimate source of food for most life. 2.Photosynthesis transforms solar animation into chemical bond energy of carbohydrates. 3.Most food chains start with photosynthesizers.solar RadiationKey Discoveries of Photosynthetic ProcessStructure of ChloroplastsFunction of Chloroplasts A. Solar Radiation 1.Solar radiation is described in terms of its energy content and its wavelength. 2.Photons atomic number 18 discrete packets of radiant energy that travel in waves. 3.The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of types of solar radiation based on wavelength. a.Gamma rays have shortest wavelength. b.Radio waves have longest wavelength. c.Energy content of photons is inversely proportional to wavelength of special type of radiation. 1.Short-wavelength ultraviolet radiation has photons of a higher energy content. 2.Long-wavelength infrar ed dispirit has photons of lower energy content. 3.High-energy photons (e.g., those of ultraviolet radiation) are dangerous to cells because they notify break down organic molecules by breaking chemical bonds. 4.Low-energy photons (e.g., those of infrared radiation) do not damage cells because they do not break chemical bonds and merely increase vibrational energy.d.White light is made up of many different wavelengths a prism separates them into a spectrum.4.Only 42% of solar radiation that hits earths atmosphere reaches get up most is visible light. a.Higher energy wavelengths are screened out by ozone layer in top(prenominal) atmosphere. b.Lower energy wavelengths are screened out by water vapor and CO2. c.Consequently, both the organic molecules within organisms are processes, such as vision and photosynthesis, are adapted to radiation that is most prevalent in the environment.5.Earths Energy-Balance sheet a.42% of solar energy hitting atmosphere reaches earth surface rest i s reflected or heats atmosphere b.Only 2% of 42% is eventually used by plants rest becomes heat. c.Of this plant-intercepted energy, tho 0.1 to 1.6% is incorporated into plant tissue. d.Of plant tissue, only 20% is eaten by herbivores most of rest decays or is lost as heat. e.Of herbivore tissues, only 30% is eaten by carnivores.6.Photosynthetic pigments use primarily the visible light portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. a.Two major photosynthetic pigments are chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b. b.Both chlorophylls absorb violet, blue, and red wavelengths best. c.Very little potassium light is absorbed most is reflected back this is why leaves appear green. d.Carotenoids are yellow-orange pigments which absorb light in violet, blue, and green regions. e.When chlorophyll in leaves breaks down in fall, the yellow-orange pigments show through.

Dreyers Vampyr Essay -- essays research papers fc

Vampyr doesnt play like a horror, or even a hesitancy picture, though there atomic number 18 a few scenes of each. Instead it is a mystery, with information gradually given to the audience. The plot follows an aimless young man, a caramel brown of the occult, who visits an inn where numerous odd state are about. There is little talking as Dreyer is a visual story teller. Vampyr is the kind of film where talks like "the wounds have almost corned" and "why does the doctor only come at night" are given without explanation. We make sense of what is sledding on as he starts to rig together what is happening and who is causing it. Dreyer effectively establishes a mood by use of touchs of objects and people. The leading actor system a cipher if this was a bind, it would be entirely in the passive voice. Things happen to the characters they dont initiate actions (which on initial viewing seem unrelated). The film picks up when a man get aways a book in a room- &q uotto be opened after my death." He is killed and the book is about vampires. Vampire mythology was less wellhead known to audiences than now, and while a Hollywood film would have used dialogue to explain, Dreyer relies on exposition pages from the book. Dreyer frequently shows actions by shadows cast by the characters we already know. This fits with the films style of indirection with plot by induction rather than by direct narrative. The film is filled with memorable images a skull turning to watch a shadow walking over to join its field of honor sitting in repose point-of-view filming from inside a glass-topped position as the lid is nailed down and indeed carried out to the churchyard for burial. The story goes that the front few days of filming was damaged by a light leak in the camera, but Dreyer care the effect so much that he had the rest of the film photographed to match. As a result, the image quality on this picture has n incessantly been as native as a film from the 1932 could look. Rudolph touch was one of the finest cinematographers in Europe, and we can be sure that the photography looks exactly as Dreyer wanted it- the sense of a dimly remembered dream. Amidst the fogginess, shots of machinery in a hoagie are as sharp as a tack. Of special note is that the horror is created, in large part, by suggestion rather than a atrocious sledgehammer approach, In the most famous sequence of the film, the man d... ...0 years ago. The film is not so steep as it is lyrically creepy. There are so many famous images from "Vampyr" which are found in most film history books. Ive seen many stills from this film and found that the exposure is still blanket(a) of other images which are just as striking as the famous shot of the vampire looking into the heros coffin during a nightmare. The camera is rarely if ever stationary. There are many tracking shots which must have been an influence on Scorsese. People enter and leave the shot which may travel from outdoor(a) and through several rooms of the house. All of this makes the movie fly by as there is little or no static in the movie. "Vampyr" challenges the conventions of movie making. It also challenges the viewer. The small indie film maker would do well to get this film and study it mold by frame. Many lessons on how to corrupt the boundaries of the artform are on display. It is ironic that nearly 70 years later, not many filmmakers have achieved what Dreyer did with primitive technology. "Vampyr" is a groundbreaking work of art which should be on everyones must see list. Works Citedme, I. Belly busting. (London 1994.) Dreyers Vampyr Essay -- essays research papers fc Vampyr doesnt play like a horror, or even a suspense film, though there are a few scenes of each. Instead it is a mystery, with information gradually given to the audience. The plot follows an aimless young man, a devotee of the occult, who visits an inn where nu merous odd people are about. There is little talking as Dreyer is a visual story teller. Vampyr is the kind of film where dialogue like "the wounds have almost healed" and "why does the doctor only come at night" are given without explanation. We make sense of what is going on as he starts to piece together what is happening and who is causing it. Dreyer effectively establishes a mood by use of shadows of objects and people. The leading actor remains a cipher if this was a book, it would be entirely in the passive voice. Things happen to the characters they dont initiate actions (which on initial viewing seem unrelated). The film picks up when a man leaves a book in a room- "to be opened after my death." He is killed and the book is about vampires. Vampire mythology was less well known to audiences than now, and while a Hollywood film would have used dialogue to explain, Dreyer relies on exposition pages from the book. Dreyer frequently shows actions by shado ws cast by the characters we already know. This fits with the films style of indirection with plot by inference rather than by direct narrative. The film is filled with memorable images a skull turning to watch a shadow walking over to join its subject sitting in repose point-of-view filming from inside a glass-topped coffin as the lid is nailed down and then carried out to the churchyard for burial. The story goes that the first few days of filming was damaged by a light leak in the camera, but Dreyer liked the effect so much that he had the rest of the film photographed to match. As a result, the image quality on this picture has never been as pristine as a film from the 1932 could look. Rudolph Mate was one of the finest cinematographers in Europe, and we can be sure that the photography looks exactly as Dreyer wanted it- the sense of a dimly remembered dream. Amidst the fogginess, shots of machinery in a mill are as sharp as a tack. Of special note is that the horror is created, in large part, by suggestion rather than a heavy sledgehammer approach, In the most famous sequence of the film, the man d... ...0 years ago. The film is not so horrific as it is lyrically creepy. There are so many famous images from "Vampyr" which are found in most film history books. Ive seen many stills from this film and found that the movie is still full of other images which are just as striking as the famous shot of the vampire looking into the heros coffin during a nightmare. The camera is rarely if ever stationary. There are many tracking shots which must have been an influence on Scorsese. People enter and leave the shot which may travel from outside and through several rooms of the house. All of this makes the movie fly by as there is little or no static in the movie. "Vampyr" challenges the conventions of movie making. It also challenges the viewer. The small indie film maker would do well to get this film and study it frame by frame. Many lessons on ho w to stretch the boundaries of the artform are on display. It is ironic that nearly 70 years later, not many filmmakers have achieved what Dreyer did with primitive technology. "Vampyr" is a groundbreaking work of art which should be on everyones must see list. Works Citedme, I. Belly busting. (London 1994.)

Dreyers Vampyr Essay -- essays research papers fc

Vampyr doesnt play like a horror, or flat a suspense necessitate, though in that location are a few scenes of each. Instead it is a mystery, with information gradually given to the audience. The speckle follows an aimless boylike worldly concern, a devotee of the occult, who visits an inn where numerous odd people are about. There is little talking as Dreyer is a visual story teller. Vampyr is the considerate of film where dialogue like "the wounds go almost healed" and "why does the doctor only come at night" are given without explanation. We cook up sense of what is going on as he starts to piece together what is happening and who is causing it. Dreyer effectively establishes a mood by use of shadows of objects and people. The conduct actor remains a consider if this was a book, it would be entirely in the passive voice. Things happen to the characters they dont initiate actions (which on initial viewing calculate unrelated). The film picks up when a ma n leaves a book in a room- "to be opened after my death." He is killed and the book is about vampires. lamia mythology was less well known to audiences than now, and eyepatch a Hollywood film would claim used dialogue to explain, Dreyer relies on exposition pages from the book. Dreyer frequently shows actions by shadows pad by the characters we already know. This fits with the films style of indirection with plot by inference sooner than by direct narrative. The film is filled with memorable images a skull turning to keep a shadow walking over to join its subject sitting in repose point-of-view filming from inside a glass-topped coffin as the palpebra is nailed down and then carried out to the churchyard for burial. The story goes that the first few days of filming was damaged by a light leak in the tv camera, but Dreyer liked the effect so much that he had the rest of the film photographed to match. As a result, the image quality on this picture has never been as pri stine as a film from the 1932 could look. Rudolph Mate was one of the finest cinematographers in Europe, and we can be sure that the photography looks exactly as Dreyer cute it- the sense of a dimly remembered dream. Amidst the fogginess, shots of machinery in a mill are as sharp as a tack. Of special none is that the horror is created, in large part, by suggestion rather than a heavy sledgehammer approach, In the most famous sequence of the film, the man d... ...0 years ago. The film is not so horrific as it is lyrically creepy. There are so many famous images from "Vampyr" which are found in most film news report books. Ive seen many stills from this film and found that the photograph is still full of other images which are just as striking as the famous shot of the vampire looking into the heros coffin during a nightmare. The camera is rarely if ever stationary. There are many tracking shots which must have been an influence on Scorsese. sight enter and leave the sh ot which may travel from outside and through several rooms of the house. All of this makes the movie fly by as at that place is little or no still in the movie. "Vampyr" challenges the conventions of movie making. It also challenges the viewer. The small indie film maker would do well to get this film and study it frame by frame. umpteen lessons on how to stretch the boundaries of the artform are on display. It is ironic that nearly 70 years later, not many filmmakers have achieved what Dreyer did with primitive technology. "Vampyr" is a groundbreaking blend of art which should be on everyones must see list. Works Citedme, I. Belly busting. (London 1994.) Dreyers Vampyr Essay -- essays research papers fc Vampyr doesnt play like a horror, or even a suspense film, though there are a few scenes of each. Instead it is a mystery, with information gradually given to the audience. The plot follows an aimless young man, a devotee of the occult, who vis its an inn where numerous odd people are about. There is little talking as Dreyer is a visual story teller. Vampyr is the kind of film where dialogue like "the wounds have almost healed" and "why does the doctor only come at night" are given without explanation. We make sense of what is going on as he starts to piece together what is happening and who is causing it. Dreyer effectively establishes a mood by use of shadows of objects and people. The leading actor remains a cipher if this was a book, it would be entirely in the passive voice. Things happen to the characters they dont initiate actions (which on initial viewing seem unrelated). The film picks up when a man leaves a book in a room- "to be opened after my death." He is killed and the book is about vampires. Vampire mythology was less well known to audiences than now, and while a Hollywood film would have used dialogue to explain, Dreyer relies on exposition pages from the book. Dreyer frequently sho ws actions by shadows cast by the characters we already know. This fits with the films style of indirection with plot by inference rather than by direct narrative. The film is filled with memorable images a skull turning to watch a shadow walking over to join its subject sitting in repose point-of-view filming from inside a glass-topped coffin as the lid is nailed down and then carried out to the churchyard for burial. The story goes that the first few days of filming was damaged by a light leak in the camera, but Dreyer liked the effect so much that he had the rest of the film photographed to match. As a result, the image quality on this picture has never been as pristine as a film from the 1932 could look. Rudolph Mate was one of the finest cinematographers in Europe, and we can be sure that the photography looks exactly as Dreyer wanted it- the sense of a dimly remembered dream. Amidst the fogginess, shots of machinery in a mill are as sharp as a tack. Of special note is that the horror is created, in large part, by suggestion rather than a heavy sledgehammer approach, In the most famous sequence of the film, the man d... ...0 years ago. The film is not so horrific as it is lyrically creepy. There are so many famous images from "Vampyr" which are found in most film history books. Ive seen many stills from this film and found that the movie is still full of other images which are just as striking as the famous shot of the vampire looking into the heros coffin during a nightmare. The camera is rarely if ever stationary. There are many tracking shots which must have been an influence on Scorsese. People enter and leave the shot which may travel from outside and through several rooms of the house. All of this makes the movie fly by as there is little or no static in the movie. "Vampyr" challenges the conventions of movie making. It also challenges the viewer. The small indie film maker would do well to get this film and study it frame by frame. Many lessons on how to stretch the boundaries of the artform are on display. It is ironic that nearly 70 years later, not many filmmakers have achieved what Dreyer did with primitive technology. "Vampyr" is a groundbreaking work of art which should be on everyones must see list. Works Citedme, I. Belly busting. (London 1994.)

Bloodsucking Fiends: A Love Story Chapter 8~10

Chapter 8Dinner with the VampireIs there something wrong with your food?No, Im salutary not very hungry.Youre going to split up my heart, arent you?Chapter 9He Knows If Youve Been Bad or Good, So Youd BetterFor the few days he had been in San Francisco, because of the newness of it on the whole, because of the brain-teaser of the flowers and the worries of pay documentation a job, Tommy had completely forgotten that he was horny. He had always been horny, and had accepted that he always would be horny. So when Jody sat d avow(p) crosswise from him and the tsunami of horm superstars washed over him, he was quite shocked that he had ever forgotten.Through dinner he missed most of her sm altogether talk and bought all the polite lies she told abtaboo her eating habits because his mind was busy with a single obsessive thought She must move that scarf so I fanny trip up her breasts.When Tommy finished eating, Frederick came to the table. Was there something wrong with your food? h e asked Jody.No, Im only if not very hungry.Frederick winked at Tommy and in additionk their plates. Jody sat buttocks, unwrapped her scarf and threw it over the subscribe of her chair. What a nice wickedness, she give tongue to.Tommy ripped his gaze from the front of her blouse and pretended to weigh tabu over the street. Yep, he said.You know, Ive never asked a man proscribed before.Me either, Tommy said.He had dogged that he would throw himself at her feet and beg. Please, please, please, take me home and harbor sex with me. You have no idea how badly I need it. Ive only make it twice in my life and both times I was so drunk that I had to be told about it the next day. Please, for the love of God, end this suffering, shaft me now or kill meWould you like a cappuccino? he asked.She shook her head. Tommy, can I trust you? Can I be honest with you?Sure.Look, I dont demand to be too forward, but I estimate I have to beI knew it. He fell forward until his head produce t he table, rattling the silverware. He spoke into the tablec plentitudeh. You proficient broke up with a guy, and this date depended like a good idea at the time, but you think that youre still in love with him. And Im a really nice guy and youll always be my friend. Right?No. I wasnt going to say that.Oh, indeed youve just gotten out of a bad relationship and youre not ready to impart into an some different one. You need to be alone for a while and find out what you really want. Right?NoRight, Tommy said into the tablecloth. only when things are moving a little too fast and maybe we should see other mountain for a while. I knew it. I knew you would break my Jody whacked him on the rump of the head with a soup spoon. Ouch Tommy sat up, rubbing the rising lump. Hey, that hurt. atomic number 18 you okay? she asked, holding the soup spoon at ready.That really hurt.Good. She put the spoon down. I was going to say that I dont want to be too forward, but you and I both need a ba se to live, and I need some help with some things, and I like you, and I was inquire if you wanted to get a place together?Tommy stopped rubbing his head. Now?If you dont have other plans.But we havent level(p), you knowWe can just be roommates if youd like. And if you need to think it over, Ill understand, but I really need your help.Tommy was stunned. No fair sex had ever said anything like that to him before. In just these few proceeding she had come to trust him enough to lay herself open to total rejection. Women didnt do that, did they? Maybe she was nuts. Well, that would be okay she could be Zelda to his F. Scott. Still, he felt as if he owed her some sort of confession that would leave him equally vulnerable.Five Chinese guys asked me to marry them today, he said.Jody didnt know what to say, so she said, Congratulations.I didnt accept.Thinking it over?No, I wouldnt two-time you.Thats sweet, but techni recollecty youd be six-timing me.Tommy smiled. I like you, I really do .Then lets move in together.Frederick appeared at the table. Well, I can see things are going along just swimmingly between you two.Check, please, Jody said.Right away. Frederick headed back into the cafe in a bit of a snit.Tommy said, Youre going to break my heart, arent you?Irreparably. Would you like to go for a walk?Sure, I guess.Frederick returned to the table with the check wallet. Jody pulled a wad of cash out of her backpack and handed him a hundred-dollar bill. As Tommy started to protest, standing to dig money out of his jeans pocket, Jody picked up her soup spoon and brandished it threateningly. Ill get this. Tommy sat back down. To Frederick, Jody said, Keep the change.Oh, you are too generous, Frederick gushed. He started backing away from the table in a half-bow.And, Frederick, Jody added, Batman is far more over-accessorized than I am.Im sorry you comprehend that, Frederick said. An overdeveloped sense of fashion will be my downfall. He looked at Tommy. Youre skillf ul, shes going to break your heart.Have you seen Coit Tower? she asked as they walked.From a distance.Lets go there. Its all lit up at night.They walked for a while without talking. Jody walked on the inside(a) and dealt with the barkers with a shake of her head and a wave of dismissal. To one barker she said, Thanks, but were going to put on our own show.Tommy coughed and tripped over a defacement in the sidewalk. He looked at her as if shed just announced the Second Coming.I have to go to work at midnight, he said.Youll have to hold on an midriff on the time, then(prenominal).Right. I will.I cant believe Im being this aggressive, Jody thought. I hear myself say these things and its as if theyre coming out of someone elses mouth. And he just agrees. Id have become a tramp a long time ago if Id known what a great sense of control it gives you.They passed two tall-growing women with enormous breasts and impossibly narrow hips unloading wigs, wads of sequins, and a boa constrict or from the back of a rusted-out Toyota. Shift change at the strip joints, Jody thought.Tommy was riveted. Jody watched the heat resurrect in his face, just as it had when she caught him staring at her own breasts.Hes so open, like a little kid, Jody thought. A cute little neurotic kid. I was lucky to find him. Lucky, considering everything that has happened.They turned on Kearny and Jody said, So what do you think about my offer?It sounds okay, if youre sure. But I wont get my first pay-check for a rival of weeks.Money isnt a problem. Ill pay.No, I couldntLook Tommy, I meant it when I said I need your help. Im busy all day. You will have to find the place and rent it. And I have a lot of other things that youll have to do. For one, my car is in impound and someone has to get it out during the day. If it would make you recover better, I can pay you so youll have the money.Is that why you asked me if I had my days free in the parking lot last night?Yes.So it could have been anyone who worked the right hours?Your buddy works the right hours, and I didnt ask him. No, I thought you were cute.I cant deal with that.He walked along looking orderly ahead, saying nothing. They had passed into a neighborhood of apartment houses with security bars on the windows and electric locks on the doors. Ahead, Jody saw waves of red heat signatures coming out of one dark entre. They were too hot for one person and too cool to be a lightbulb. She focused and could hear men whispering. She suddenly remembered the phone call Youre not immortal. You can still be killed.Lets cross the street, Tommy.Why?Just come on. She grabbed his jacket and yanked him into the street. When they were on the opposite sidewalk, Tommy stopped and looked at her as if she had just hit him on the head with a spoon.What was that all about? She waved for him to be quiet. Listen.Someone behind them was laughing. Laughing loudly enough to be heard without Jodys peachy hearing. They both turned and looked back. A thin man dressed in black was standing under a street lamp a block away.Whats so funny? Tommy asked.Jody didnt answer. She was staring at something that wasnt there. There was no heat signature coming off the man in black.Lets go, Jody said, hurrying Tommy up the street. As they passed the doorway across the street, Jody looked over and flipped a middle finger to the three toughs that had been waiting to ambush them. You guys are nothing, she thought. Laughter from the man in black still rang in her ears.It had been a long time since the vampire had heard the sound of his own laughter, and hearing it made him laugh all the louder. So the fledgling had found herself a minion. It had been a good idea to leave her hand partially exposed to the daylight. She had learned that lesson quickly. So many of them just wandered until daylight and burned to death, and he couldnt even enjoy the show unless he wanted to join them in perdition. This one was interesting so reluctant to give herself to the blood.They only seemed to have two instincts, the hungriness and the hiding. And this one had controlled the hunger on her first feeding. She was almost too good. So many of them, if they lasted the first night, went mad trying to live with their new senses. One night and he had to send them to hell with a snap of the neck and a fare-thee-well. But not this one. She had made him laugh afraid of a few mortals whom she could boom like insects.Perhaps she was protecting her new servant. Perhaps he should kill the boy, just to watch her reaction. Perhaps, but not yet. Some other fly in her ointment then. Just to keep the game going.It felt so good to laugh after so long.Chapter 10Walking, Talking, and Bumping in the NightCoit Tower jutted out of Telegraph Hill like a giant phallus. Impressive as it was, all lit up and overlooking the City, it made Tommy tone of voice nervous, inferior, and pressured to perform. She had as a good deal as admitted that she was going to take him to bed had even offered to solve the problem of the Wongs. She was a dream come true. It scared the hell out of him.She took his hand and looked out over the City. Its pretty, isnt it. Were lucky its a clear night.Your hand is freezing, he said. He put his arm around her and pulled her close. God, Im imperturbable, he thought, a complete stud. Im making a move on an older woman an older woman with money. Now what? My arm is lying on her shoulder like a dead fish. Im a geek. If I could just turn my mind off until its all over. Just get shit-faced and do it. No, not that. Not again.Jody stiffened. She thought Im not dusty. I havent been cold since I changed, nor warm, for that matter. Kurt used to say I was always cold. How strange. I can see the heat around Tommy but theres none around me.Feel my forehead, she said to Tommy.Tommy said, Jody, we dont have to do this if youre not ready. I mean, maybe, like you said, we should just be roommates. I dont want to pressure you.No, feel my forehead and see if I have a fever.Oh. He put his hand on her forehead. Youre as cold as ice. Do you feel okay?Oh my God How could I have been so stupid? She tore away from him and began pacing. The guy outside her apartment, the laughing man on Kearny Street, he had been cold. And so was she. How many vampires were out there that she hadnt seen?Whats the matter? Tommy asked. Did I say something wrong?Ive got to tell him, she thought. Hes not going to trust me if I keep it from him.She took his hand again. Tommy, I think you ought to know. Im not exactly what I seem to be.He stepped back. Youre a guy, arent you? I knew it. My dad warned me that this could happen here.Maybe not, she thought.No, Im not a guy.Are you sure?Are you?Theres no need to get nasty.Well, how would you feel if I asked you if you were a girl?Tommy hung his head. Youre right. Sorry. But how would you feel if five Chinese women asked you to marry them? Things like that dont happen in Indiana. I can t even go back to my room.I cant either, she said.Why not?Give me a minute to think, okay?She didnt want to go back to the motel on Van Ness again. The vampire knew she had been there. But hed probably know even if she moved.Tommy, we need to get you a motel room.Jody, Im getting mixed messages here.No, dont take it wrong. I dont want to send you back to that room with the Wongs. I think we should get you a room.I told you, I dont get paid My treat. Itll be an advance on your new job as my assistant.Tommy sat down on the sidewalk and stared up at the lighted shaft of Coit Tower. He thought, I have no idea what I am supposed to be or what Im supposed to do. First she wants me for my body, then she wants me as an employee, then she doesnt want me at all. I dont know whether Im supposed to kiss her or fill out an application. I feel like one of those nervous little dogs from an electroshock test. Heres a bone, Spot. Zap You didnt really want that, did you?He said, Whatever you want m e to do, Ill do.Okay, Jody said. Thanks. She curing and kissed him on the forehead.I have no idea what Im supposed to do, she thought. If we go to a motel and go to bed together, then hell have to go to work, and when he comes back in the morning hell come back to the room, open the door, and the sunlight will hit me. Bursting into flames is no way to impress someone on the first date. severalise rooms is the only way to go. Hes going to get fed up and leave me like all the rest.Tommy, can you go get your stuff tomorrow?Whatever you say.I cant explain now, but I might be in a little trouble and I have a lot of things to do. I need you to do a lot of things for me tomorrow. Can you do that after working all night?Whatever you say, he said.Im going to get you a room at my motel. I wont be around until tomorrow night. Ill meet you at the motel office at sunset. When you come back to the room in the morning, the papers for my car will be on the bed, okay?Whatever you say. Tommy looked dazed. He stared into his lap.Ill give you money for an apartment. Try to find a place thats furnished. And no windows in the bedroom. Try to keep it under two thousand a month.Tommy didnt look up. Whatever you say.Ive taken over his mind, she thought. Its just like in the movies, when the vampire can control peoples actions. I dont want that. I dont want to force him with my will. Its not fair. He was helpless enough, but now Ive turned him into a zombie. I want help, but I dont want this. I wonder if theres enough of his mind left even to function, or if Ive ruined him.Tommy, she said sternly, I want you to climb to the top of the tower and jump off.He looked up. Are you out of your mind?She threw her arms around him, kissed him, and said, Oh, Im so glad I didnt turn you into a vegetable.Ill give you time, he said.Jody stood outside the four-story apartment building on Chestnut, watching and listening. There were no lights on in Kurts apartment. Already it had become Kurts apartme nt, not hers, not theirs. The moment she asked Tommy out, she had transferred whatever dreams and delusions she attached to being a couple to Tommy. It was always that way for her. She didnt like to be alone.She and Tommy had walked Telegraph Park talking about their late(prenominal) lives and avoiding the subject of a singular, future life until it was time for Tommy to go to work. Jody had called a cab from a pay phone and dropped Tommy off at the store with a kiss and a promise. Ill see you tomorrow night.It was only when she got out of the cab at the motel that she complete that the registration and pink slip for her car were still at Kurts.Why didnt I take a damn key when I left?She toyed with the idea of ringing the bell, but the thought of looking Kurt in the eye after what she had done to him No, shed have to get in on her own. Going through the two fire doors and the security bolts wasnt an option.The building was a pseudo-Victorian, the facade adorned with prefabricated b olt-on gingerbread. Jody tried to imagine herself climbing the front of the building and shuddered. To her relief, the side panels on the fourth-floor bay window were closed. No way in there.There was a five-foot-wide highway between Kurts building and the one next to it. The bedroom window was on that side. No gingerbread for handholds there.She went to the alley and looked up. The bedroom window was open and the wall was as smooth as polished stone. She eyed the space between the two buildings. With her hands against one side and her feet against the other, she could spider her way up the wall. Shed seen guys climbing chimney crevices at Yosemite that way. Experienced climbers, with equipment. Not secretaries who avoided escalators for fear of breaking a heel.She focused on the open window and listened. The sound of someone breathing deeply, sleeping. No, it was the sound of two people sleeping. You bastard.She leaped into the air and caught herself between the two buildings, six feet off the ground, her feet against one, hands against the other. She was amazed that she could do it, but it wasnt that hard. It wasnt hard at all. She tested her weight against the tension in her limbs and it felt solid. She held herself with one hand while she pulled her skirt up over her hips with the other, then she tried a tentative step up.Hand, foot, hand, foot. When she paused to look down she was right under Kurts window, forty feet off the ground, with only a garbage can and a stray cat to break her fall. She tried to catch her breath, then realized that she wasnt out of breath. She felt as if she could hold herself there for hours if she needed to. But the fear of falling pushed her on. Youre not immortal. You can still be killed.She pushed the screen resign from the window with her left hand, got a grip on the windowsill, then loosed the tension in her legs and swung down against Kurts building. Hanging by one hand, she removed the screen with the other and lowered it to the floor inside, then pulled herself up to the windowsill, where she crouched and looked around the room. Two people were in the bed. She could see their heat signatures rising through the covers and being dissipated by the cold breeze coming through the window. No wonder I complained about the cold. She stepped into the room and waited to see if the sleepers stirred. Nothing.She moved to the side of the bed and looked at the woman with almost scientific detachment. It was Susan Badistone. Jody had met her at Kurts office picnic and had disliked her immediately. Her straight blond hair was spread over the pillow. Jody twisted a lock of her own curly red hair around her finger. So this is what he wanted. And thats an after-market nose if Ive ever seen one. But its all about appearances, isnt it, Kurt?Jody grabbed the covers and lifted them far enough to look under. Shes got the body of a twelve-year-old boy. Oh Kurt, you should have let her finish the surgery schedule before y ou brought her home.She let the covers fall and Susan stirred. Jody backed away from the bed slowly. She had kept all of her papers in an expandable file under the sink in the bathroom. She went to the bathroom and palmed the cabinet open. The file was still there. She grabbed it and headed for the window.Whos there? Kurt said. He sat up in bed and stared into the dark.Jody ducked below the light coming in the window and watched him.I said, whos there?Whats a matter? a groggy Susan said.I heard something.Its nothing, honey. Youre just jumpy after what that horrible woman did to you.I could snap her scrawny blond neck, Jody thought. Then, in thinking it, in knowing that she could actually do it, she was no longer angry. Im not that horrible woman, she thought. Im a vampire, and no amount of plastic surgery, or breeding, or money will ever make you my equal. I am a god.For the first time since the transformation Jody felt calm, comfortable in her own skin. She waited there in the dark until they fell asleep again, then she climbed out the window and replaced the screen. She stood on the window ledge and threw the expandable file on the roof, then leaped up, grabbed the gutter, and pulled herself onto the roof.At the back of the building she found a sword ladder that went all the way to the ground. The climb between the two buildings had been completely unnecessary.Okay, not a particularly smart god, but at least a god who has her original nose.

Motivational Factors Toward Pursuing a Career in Special Education Essay

This take investigated factors which motivated individuals to initially pursue careers in additional information, factors which contributed toward their plans to remain or forswear the region, and their perceptions of initiate districts effective and ineffective recruitment and retention practices. The sample comprised of 15 individuals employed in public schools throughout north Texas who initially pursued careers in modified education.Data were collected through the form of audio-recorded semi-structured telephone interviews. Empathy towards students, family, and opportunities to fill job vacancies were factors that participants cited the most for initially prosecute careers in special education. Further more(prenominal), most of the interviewees reported pleasure within their jobs, but noted excessive demands and lack of administrative support as contributing to job dissatisfaction. Motivational Factors toward Pursuing a Career in Special Education.Chronic deficits in th e field of special education continue to pose challenges for public schools across the United States (Billingsley, Carlson, & Klein, 2004 Boe, 2006 Billingsley & McLeskey, 2004 Brownell, Hirsch, Seo, 2004 Singh & Billingsley, 1996 Strunk & Robinson, 2006 Thornton, Peltier, & Medina, 2007). The limited number of individuals entering and/or remaining in the field of special education has resulted in school districts inability to fill the necessary teaching powers such shortages have been linked to difficulties in the recruitment and retention of qualified individuals (Olivarez & Arnold, 2006).Although difficulties with the recruitment of teachers, rugged retention, and high attrition rates are evident across all teaching professions, it is much more prevalent among special pedagogues. Specifically, teachers of students with emotional/behavioral disorders exhibit the largest shortage, followed by those serving students with severe/profound disabilities, and learning disabilities (McL eskey, Tyler, & Flippin, 2004). Our national school districts are in a crisis. Specifically, districts are scrambling to find qualified special educators to fill the vacant teaching positions.According to Plash and Piotrowski (2006), a projected 611,550 positions in special education impart need to be filled by the year 2010. However, the inability to recruit the necessary number of eligible individuals to fill positions continues to be a major paradox for school administrators. An infinite number of research studies have been conducted in an attempt to identify barriers which deter people from entering the field (Billingsley, 2004 Gersten, Keating, Yovanoff, & Harniss, 2001 McLeskey et al., 2004 Olivarez & Arnold, 2006 Thornton, Peltier, & Medina, 2007).Studies have identified perceptions of low social status associated with being a special educator, poor working conditions, high rates of stress, excessive paperwork, and low salaries with the decreased number of individuals enter ing the field of special education (Barmby, 2006 McLeskey et al. , 2004 Rice, Goeling, & Peters, 2005).A vast amount of research also exists regarding factors which have contributed to the decisions of individuals to leave the field of special education (Billingsley, Carlson, & Klein, 2004 Singh & Billingsley, 1996 Thornton, Peltier, & Medina, 2007) and consequently contribute to the shortage of and high attrition rates of special education teachers (Barmby, 2006 Fish & Stephens, in press McLeskey, Tyler, & Saunders, 2004). According to Plash and Piotrowski (2006), 13. 2% of special education teachers leave their position each year.While six percent of special educators leave the field of education altogether, 7. 2% transfer to general education positions. Prevalent variables identified as contributors to the exodus from the field include occupational stress, burnout (Botwinik, 2007 Greiner & Smith, 2006), weak support by administrators, unreasonable caseloads, large class size, low salaries (Darling-Hammond, 2003), testing and accountability pressures (Tye & OBrien, 2002), and ineffective in-service programs (Kaufhold, Alverez, & Arnold, 2006 Plash & Piotrowski, 2006).A study conducted by Brownell, Smith, McNellis, and Lenk (1994) investigated the contextual variables related to teacher attrition. Findings indicated that those teachers who decided to stay in the field of special education were more affiliated to teaching students with disabilities, had a higher sense of efficacy, felt more prepared by their pre-service and initial teaching experiences, and exhibited more effective coping strategies than those who decided to leave the field.Two international studies were identified which focused on the motivating factors of individuals initially pursuing careers as general educators (Barmby, 2006 Watt & Richardson, 2007). Based upon a study conducted in England and Wales, Barmby identified intrinsic (e. g. , the activity of teaching children) and altruistic ( e. g. , desire to help children succeed) reasons which contributed to the teachers decision to pursue careers within the field of education.Similar findings (e. g., working with children, shape proximo of children, and make a social contribution) were reported by Watt and Richardson who investigated the motivational factors which influenced Australian individuals to initially pursue a career in general education. In addition to investigating special educators job satisfaction and decisions to remain in the field, obtaining an understanding of individuals motivations for entering the field of special education have implications which may aid in the increased recruitment and retention of special educators.Such findings would contribute to enhanced teacher educational planning, curriculum design and policy decisions. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to obtain perceptions of special educators with regards to factors that contributed toward their (a) initial pursuit of special education careers, (b) job satisfaction and/or dissatisfaction levels and (c) decisions whether to remain on the special education career path. Participants were provided asked to provide recommendations that school districts could take to effectively recruit and retain special educators.Design of Study Qualitative methodology was utilized in this study in the form of audio-recorded semi-structured telephone interviews to obtain the perceptions of special educators. Qualitative research is appropriate in dealing with potentially multiple realities, mutually shaping influences, and value patterns (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Interviews advert the purpose of obtaining here-and-now constructions of persons, events, activities, organizations, feelings, motivations, claims, concerns, and other entities (p. 268).According to Bogdan and Biklen (1998), semi-structured interviews encourage interviewees to expand upon ideas, which provide the researcher opportunities to generate abstract ideas t hrough descriptive material. Participants Respondents participating in this study consisted of 15 educators employed in public school districts throughout the north Texas area. This purposive sample was comprised of 11 special education teachers, three diagnosticians and one former special education teacher currently serving as a high school principal at the time of the interviews.Four of the 11 special education teachers within this study were previously general education teachers. Data Collection and Analysis The interview questions conducted for this study focused on factors which contributed toward special educators initially pursuing careers in special education in addition to conditions that would contribute toward them remaining in or leaving the field. Interviewees were additionally asked to provide feedback pertaining to their school districts special educator recruitment and retention efforts. The following open-ended questions were asked to each of the 15 participants.

Culture of Pakistan Essay

The 17th century Badshahi Mosque built by Mughal emperor Aurangzeb in Lahore The society and enculturation of Pakistan (Urdu ) comprises numerous diverse cultures and ethnic groups the Punjabis, Kashmiris, Sindhis in east, Muhajirs, Makrani in the south Baloch and Pashtun in the west and the ancient Dardic, Wakhi, and Burusho communities in the north. These Pakistani cultures have been greatly influenced by galore(postnominal) of the surrounding countries cultures, such as the Turkic peoples, Persian, Arab, and other South Asian ethnic groups of the Subcontinent, Central Asia and the Middle East. In ancient times, Pakistan was a major ethnic hub. Many heathenish practices and great monuments have been inherited from the time of the ancient rulers of the region. One of the greatest cultural influences was that of the Persian Empire, of which Pakistan was a part. In fact, the Pakistani satraps were at one time the richest and most productive of the massive Persian Empire.Other key influences include the Afghan Empire, Mughal Empire and later, the short-lived but influential, the British Empire. Pakistan has a cultural and ethnic background going back to the Indus Valley Civilization, which existed from 28001800 B.C., and was remarkable for its ordered cities, advanced sanitation, excellent roads, and uniquely structured society. Pakistan has been invaded many times in the past, and has been occupied and settled by many polar peoples, each of whom have left their imprint on the current inhabitants of the province. Some of the largest groups were the Proto-Indo-Aryans, of which Sindhis and Punjabis lessen from and later Iranic peoples which the Baloch and Pashtuns descend from. Other less significant ones include the Greeks, Scythians, Persians, White Huns, Arabs, Turks, Mongols, Buddhists, and other Eurasian groups, up to and including the British, who left in the late 1940s.The region has formed a searching cultural unit within the main cultural complex of South Asia, the Middle East and Central Asia from the earliest times, and is analogous to Turkeys vex in Eurasia.1 There are differences in culture among the different ethnic groups in matters such as dress, food, and religion, especially where pre-Islamic customs differ from Islamic practices. Their cultural origins also reveal influences from far afield, including Tibet, Nepal, India, and eastern Afghanistan. All groups show varying degrees of influence from Persia, Turkestan and Hellenistic Greece. Pakistan was the first region of South Asia to receive the full intrusion of Islam and has developed a distinct Islamic identity, historically different from areas further west.1Ancient sites in Pakistan include Zoroastrian Fire temples, Islamic centres, shia shrines/Sufi shrines, Buddhist temples, Sikh, Hindu, and pagan temples and shrines, gardens, tombs, palaces, monuments, and Mughal and Indo-Saracenic buildings. Sculpture is dominated by Greco-Buddhist friezes, and crafts by ceramics, jewellery, silk goods and engraved woodwork and metalwork. Pakistani society is largely multilingual, multi-ethnic and multicultural. Though cultures within the country differ to some extent, more similarities than differences can be found, as most Pakistanis are mainly of Aryan heritage or have coexisted side by side along the Indus River for several thousand years, or both. However, over 60 years of integration, a distinctive Pakistani culture has sprung up, especially in the urban areas where many of the diverse ethnic groups have coexisted and ithe country now having a literacy rate of 55%, up from 3% at the time of independence.Traditional family set are highly respected and considered sacred, although urban families increasingly form nuclear families, owing to socio-economic constraints imposed by the traditional culture of the extended family. The past some decades have seen emergence of a middle class in cities such as Karachi, Lahore, Rawalpindi, Hyderabad, Quet ta, Faisalabad, Sukkur, Peshawar, Sialkot, Abbottabad, and Multan. Rural areas of Pakistan are regarded as more conservative, and are dominated by regional tribal customs dating back hundreds if not thousands of years.Pakistans culture is again unique like the rest of the country. Pakistans geography is the get together point of South Asia, Central Asia and West Asia/Gulf. Its culture could be termed as a combination of sub continental, Islamic, Regional, English, and more recently global influences. Let us consider them piecemeal. The newly born Pakistan had to have a sub continental leaning, having been a part of for last 5000 years of its civilization. However, the Indus Valley, present day Pakistan, culture was different from the rest of North India or South India. (Quoted Pakistans Identity, History and Culture, from the famous book Gwadar on the Global Chessboard by Nadir Mir)

Customer behaviour Essay

What is Electronic Commerce?Commerce The exchange of commodities, purchasing and merchandising, of products and services requiring transportation, from location to location is known as commerce. E-Commerce From a communications perspective, e-commerce is the delivery of data, products/services or stipends via telephone lines, Fax, reckoner networks or any other means.What is Electronic Commerce?From an online perspective, e-commerce provides the capability of buying and selling products and information on the internet and other online services. It refers to a wide range of online business activities for products and services. Any form of business transaction in which the parties interact electronically rather than by physical exchanges or direct physical contact.Difference between E-Commerce & E- clienteleElectronic commerce or e-CommerceE-commerce c everyplaces online processes that touch customers, suppliers and external partners, including sales, marketing, order taking, del ivery, customer service, purchasing of raw materials and supplies for production. More sophisticated system much(prenominal) as flight and hotel reservation system.e-Commerce breaks into two componentsOnline Shopping the scope of information and activities that provides the customer with the information they need to conduct business with you and make an informed buying decision. Online Purchasing the technology infrastructure for the exchange of data and the purchase of a product over the Internet. Online purchasing is a metaphor used in business-to-business e-Commerce for providing customers with an online method of placing an order, submitting a purchase order, or requesting a quotation.E-Business is a super-set of E-Commerce.E-business includes e-commerce but also covers internal processes such as production, inventory management, product development, risk management, finance, and human resources. E-business includes electronic mechanism to distribute information not directly related to buying and selling of goods. Examples w atomic number 18 specifications, customer testimonials, and product reviews. Purchasing activities on your site, e.g., order forms, shopping carts, and computer address card processing. Customers cant interact directly with the trustworthy. (territory barrier)History of ECThe marge e-commerce was originally conceived to describe the process of conducting business transactions electronically using technology from the Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) and Electronic Funds Transfer (EFT).These technologies, which world-class appeared in the late 1970s, allowed for the exchange of information and the execution of electronic transactions between businesses, typically in the form of electronic purchase orders and invoices. EDI and EFT were the enabling technologies that located the groundwork for what we now know as e-commerce. The Boston Computer Exchange, a marketplace for used computer equipment started in 1982, was one of the fi rst known pillow slips of e-commerce. passim the 1980s, the proliferation of credit cards, ATM machines and telephone banking was the next step in the evolution of electronic commerce. The birth of companies such as eBay and Amazon (launched in 1994) really began to decease the way in e-commerce. Both eBay and Amazon were among the first to establish prominent e-commerce brands. The most prominent e-commerce categories today are computers, books, office supplies, music, and a variety of electronics. Dell.com,1997Types of EcommerceB2B( Business to Business E-commerce) or Inter-Organizational E-commerce B2C(Business to Consumer E-commerce)C2B( Consumer to Business E-commerce)C2C( Consumer to Consumer E-commerce) or Ecommerce Involving Intermediaries Intra-organizational E-commercem-commerce(Mobile E-commerce)Business to Government E-CommerceB2B (Business-to-Business) or inter-organizational Ecommerce Companies doing business with each other such as manufacturers selling to distribu tors and wholesalers selling to retailers. Pricing is based on quantity of order and is often negotiable. B2B is used to improve business relation send out among orgz. (invoices, cheques, purchase orders, financial reports) are in electronic for. For Example Logistic companiesBenefitsSupplier Management (reduce no. of suppliers, processing coast, and cycle time) Inventory Management (list of items/product, eliminate out of stock items) Distribution Management (list of ships cargo, purchase orders etc) Channel Management (reduce labour, time saving)Payment Management (electronic payment reduce clerical errors, lower transaction fee and coast)B2C Business to ConsumerIn B2C seller is a business organization buyer is consumer. In this case costumer directly interacts with company, i.e. books and cds buy online and internet used as a medium for transaction. Newspapers reading and weather forecasting are used as a B2C E-commerce. This type of e-commerce improve the flow of information bet ween firm and customers. Examples are ebay.com, and amazon.com.C2B Consumer to BusinessA consumer posts his project with a set budget online and within hours companies review the consumers requirements and bid on the project. The consumer reviews the bids and selects the company that will be intimate theproject. Elance empowers consumers around the world by providing the meeting ground and curriculum for such transactions. FreelancingC2C (Consumer-to-Consumer) orE-commerce Involving IntermediariesIn this type both seller and buyers are consumers.There are many sites offering free classifieds, auctions and forums where individuals can buy and sell. PayPal where people can send and receive money online with ease. Olx.com auction service is a great example of where person-to-person transactions take place everyday.Intra-organizational E-CThe purpose of Intra-organizational applications is to help a company maintain the relationships that are critical to delivering superior customer v alue by paying close attention to various functions in the organization. BenefitsWorkgroup communicationsElectronic PublishingSales force ProductivityBusiness to Government E-CA platform for businesses to bid on government opportunities. It refers to the use of the Internet for public procurement, licensing procedures, and other government-related operations. It reduces the risk of irregularities.Income Tax Department, Excise and Taxation DepartmentM-CommerceMobile commerce is the buying and selling of goods and services through wireless technology i.e., cellular telephones and ad hominem digital assistants (PDAs). Including mobile banking (when customers use their handheld devices to access their accounts and pay their bills). Bill payment and account reviews can all be conducted from the same handheld device. Delivery of entertainment, financial news, sports figures and trafficupdates to a single mobile device.Advantages of e-commerce for businesses?Reduction of costs in the bus inessE-commerce serves as an equalizer. It enables start-up and small- and medium-sized enterprises to reach the global market. E-commerce makes mass customization possible. E-commerce applications in this area include easy-to-use ordering systems that allow customers to choose and order products according to their personal and unique specifications. E-commerce allows network production. This refers to the parcelling out of the production process to contractors who are geographically dispersed but who are connected to each other via computer networks.What forces are fuelling e-commerce?There are at least three major forces fuelling e-commerceEconomic forces. One of the most evident benefits of e-commerce is economic efficiency resulting from the reduction in communications costs, low-cost technological infrastructure. speedier and more economic electronic transactions with suppliers. lower global information sharing and advertising costs.Market forces. Corporations are back up t o use e-commerce in marketing and promotion to capture international markets, both big and small. The Internet is likewise used as a medium for enhance customer service and support. Technology forces. The development of ICT is a key factor in the growth of ecommerce.What are the components of a successfule-commerce transaction loop?To maximize the benefits of e-commerce, a number of technical as well as enabling issues have to be considered. A typical e-commerce transaction loop involves the following major players and corresponding requisites 1. The Seller should have the following componentsA corporate Web site with e-commerce capabilities (e.g., a secure transaction server) A corporate intranet so that orders are processed in an efficientmanner and IT-literate employees to manage the information flows and maintain the e-commerce system. 2. Transaction partners includeBanking institutions that offer transaction clearing services (e.g., processing credit card payments and electroni c fund transfers) National and international freight companies to enable the movement of physical goods within, around and out of the country. Authentication authority that serves as a trusted third party to ensure the integrity and security of transactions. 3. Consumers (in a business-to-consumer transaction)Form a critical mass of the population with access to the Internet and useable income enabling widespread use of credit cards and Possess a mindset for purchasing goods over the Internet rather than by physically inspecting items. 4. Firms/Businesses that unneurotic form a critical mass of companies (especially within supply chains) with Internet access and the capability to place and take orders over the Internet. 5. Government, to establishA good framework governing e-commerce transactions (including electronic documents, signatures, and the like) and Legal institutions that would enforce the legal framework (i.e., laws and regulations) and protect consumers and businesses from fraud, among others. 6. Internet, the successful use of which depends on the following A fertile and reliable Internet infrastructure andA pricing structure that doesnt penalize consumers for spending time on and buying goods over the Internet (e.g., a flat monthly charge for both ISP access and local phone calls).

The Struggle Between Tradition and Change

October 17, 2012 In Things Fall apart(predicate) by Chinua Achebe, the reader is taken on a literary journey to a Nigerian tribe, the Umuofia, to experience first-hand the struggles of a warrior named Okonkwo. At first glance, the novel appears to be written for a very specific audience scholars familiar with Nigerian hi score, traditions, and culture. However, upon further trial run the novel reveals itself to be a striking chronicle of human experiences, universal themes, and timeless struggles that appeal to every human, regardless of familiarity with Nigerian culture.Taken as a whole, the novel appears to be much more than the sum of its parts syntax, diction, figurative verbalize speech, imagery, repetition, and symbols. Things Fall Apart is definitely a novel with literary worth. As a story well-nigh a culture on the verge of change, Things Fall Apart deals with how the viewpoint and reality of change affect a number of characters. The tension about whether change should be privileged over tradition often contains questions of personal status.Okonkwo, for extype Ale, resists the new political and religious orders because he feels that they argon not manly and that he himself will not be manly if his agreements to join or even tolerate them. To some extent, Okonkwos resistance of cultural change is also imputable to his fear of being like his father, or in other words, loss his societal status. His sense of self-worth is dependent upon the tralatitious standards by which society judges him. This schema of evaluating the self inspires many of the clans outcasts to embrace Christianity.Long scorned, these outcasts find in the Christian value system a refuge from the Igbo cultural values that maculation them below everyone else. In their new community, these converts enjoy a more elevated status. The villagers in general are caught between resisting and embracing change and they face the quandary of trying to determine how best to adapt to the realit y of change. Many of the villagers are excited about the new opportunities and techniques that the missionaries bring.This European influence, however, threatens to extinguish the need for the mastery of traditional methods of farming, harvesting, building, and cooking. These traditional methods, once crucial for survival, are now to a degree, dispensable. Throughout the novel, Achebe shows how dependent such traditions are upon storytelling and language and thus how quickly the abandonment of the Igbo language for English could lead to the extinction of these traditions. In addition to cultural clash, Achebe explores the theme of masculinity versus femininity, and reveals Okonkwos fatal character flaw hyper-masculinity.Okonkwo is motivated by a desire to prove himself superior to his father, who was cowardly and careless and died a poor man with many unpaid debts. He viewed his father as overly pensive, lessen to act and womanly. For this reason, he frequently beats his wives, eve n threatening to kill them from time to time. Therefore, Okonkwo adopts opposite traits Okonkwo is rash, quick to act, and excessively violent. Okonkwo always associated violence with masculinity. Achebe uses figurative language like metaphors and similes to compare Okonkwo to a bang. during this time Okonkwos fame had grown like a bush-fire in the harmattan (1). Okonkwo gained power and importance in Umuofian society by burning lesser people as fuel. Just like a brush-fire, Okonkwos fame, importance, and prestige grew stronger the longer he burned. He continued to burn strong into adulthood. The drums filled him with fire as it had always done from his youth. He trembled with the desire to conquer and subdue (42). Okonkwos inner fire is what allowed him to conquer Umuofian society and rise above the note of his father.As his fame and popularity increased, Okonkwo pursued his ideal of masculinity. Okonkwo constantly distanced himself from anything even remotely feminine. He consta ntly reminded himself of his masculinity and strove to make sure all his clansmen knew of it as well. Okonkwo was popularly called the Roaring Flame. As he looked into the log fire he recalled the name. He was a flaming fire (153). The metaphor of fire is perfect to describe Okonkwos character, and yields a plenteous analysis of human feelings and personality. Like a fire, Okonkwo is violent, and burns whatever he touches.In many cases, he burns his own family. Throughout the novel, Okonkwo harasses on his wives and son, beats his family, and kills one-third innocent people not including him. In many cases, he hurts his family for trivial reasons. For instance, Okonkwo chastised and beat his son, Nwoye, for merely listening to his mothers stories. He beat Nwoye once again when he discovered him helping women with their household tasks. Okonkwo saw within Nwoye the same effeminate essence of his the father whom he hates so much. Ultimately, the success of Things FallApart as a no vel of literary merit is due to Achebes use of universal literary themes like self-exploration, change, tradition, cultural clash, and masculinity versus femininity. No matter what language is spoken by the reader or what time period they come from, Achebes writing about the human experience is relevant and significant. Mankind has many assorted faces. Although fear and anger are reactions that all men have, if left unchecked, they will consume all one has worked for and eventually destroy everything that one holds dear.Because of that, before actions are taken, much consideration should be taken to make sure that personal flaws as well as flaws in society do not impede with ones judgment. Of course, not all scholars agree with the assertion that Things Fall Apart has literary worth. Achebes skillful use of literary devices like metaphor, simile, imagery, and repetition demonstrate the prize of writing. Achebes understanding of the human experience demonstrates the relevance of t heme. And the number of copies of the novel sold, over two million worldwide, demonstrates the universality of the story. It is safe to say that Things Fall Apart has earned widespread acceptance as a quality piece of literature.Works Cited Achebe, Chinua. Things Fall Apart. New York Anchor, 1994. Print. Things Fall Apart. Enotes. com. Enotes. com, n. d. Web. 29 Oct. 2012. <http//www. enotes. com/things-fall-apart>. Things Fall Apart Summary. Study Guides & Essay Editing. N. p. , n. d. Web. 29 Oct. 2012. <http//www. gradesaver. com/things-fall-apart/study-guide/short-summary/>.

The Financial Performance Measures Accounting Essay

During the last old ages, more and more at hunt downing is paid to the bonus construction of CEOs of big multinationals. CEO bon affairs has become an international issuance debated in the parliament and routinely featured in front-page headlines, screen narratives, and telecasting intelligence shows. Several factors know contributed to the widespread involvement in CEO fillips. First, the payment of CEO has risen aggressively during the last decennaries ( Murphy, 1999 ) . Secondly, few houses in the Netherlands were in existent problem during the monetary crisis, they needed financial aid from the administration, but their CEOs until now got a fillip ( Hooft van Huysduynen, 2011 ) . But since the regulations about CEO compensation were wholly ill-defined for companies which needed fiscal aid from the authorities, more arguments were held in the authorities and regulations were changed often. This contributed to the widespread involvement of the topic of administrator compe nsation in The Netherlands ( de Horde, 2011 ) . And in conclusion, there has besides been an detonation in academic interrogation on executive compensation, which contributed to the rosen involvement of CEO bonus-structure ( Murphy, 1999 ) .CEO compensationThe compensation bundles negotiated with main executive police officers ( CEOs ) of big corporations largely contains four basic constituents a base wage, an one-year fillip tied to be human race instauration, stock options, and long term inducement programs ( including restricted stock programs and multi-year accounting-based common exhibit programs ) ( Murphy, 1999 ) . The incentive constituent frequently is comprised of both an one-year fillip program and a long-run inducement program, where the final payments from these programs depend on an intricate portfolio of public creation move ( Bushman et al, 1996 ) . The compensation commission can want different public presentation locomote, including stock return, accoun ting return and non-financial locomote, to find how much of each signifier of compensation the CEO lead gain ( Krolick, 2005 ) . paying CEOs based on short tally accounting terminal incomes provides inducements to increase short-term net incomes ( by, for illustration, cutting R & A D ) even if make so reduces measure out in the long tally. Conceptually, the perfect public presentation gradation for a CEO is the Chief executive officer s private part to the cherish of the house. This part includes the consequence that the CEO has on the public presentation of others in the organisation, and besides the effects that the CEO s actions this class have on public presentation in future periods. Unfortunately, the CEO s part to tauten order is about neer straight mensurable the functional steps pull up stakes necessarily except ways that the CEO creates value, and include the effects of factors non due to the attempts of the CEO, or neglect to uncover ways that the CEO des troys value ( Murphy, 2013 ) .A long line of literature has argued that compensation should be related to public presentation. The grounds for the linkage be both normative and positive. In a normative sense, compensation is considered just if it has been earned through superior public presentation. In a positive sense, bureau theoreticians argue that associating compensation to tauten public presentation steps provides inducement to increase steadfast value ( Balsam, 2002 Lewellen and Huntsman, 1970 Murphy, 1985 ) .Fiscal public presentation stepsFiscal public presentation steps consists of steps of hard currency flow, net income, earnings-per-share, gross revenues, economic value added, return on invested capital, return on assets, return on equity, return on gross revenues, stock monetary value return and cost decrease ( Ittner et al, 1997 ) . The literature paperss that i?nancial accounting steps, particularly steps of proi?tability, are extensively utilise in executive co mpensation contracts. thither is grounds of widespread, expressed usage of proi?tability steps in the one-year fillip programs and in the long-run public presentation programs of corporate executives. The inexplicit usage of proi?tability steps in the board of manager s rating and compensation of top oi?cers is supported by a robust, positive statistical relation between proi?tability steps and assorted steps of executive wage, including managerial turnover chances ( Bushman and Smith, 2001 ) . The most of import ground of utilizing fiscal public presentation steps alternatively of utilizing nonfinancial steps, is that fiscal marks are cheaper and easier to mensurate, since all companies are already compulsory to print a balance sheet and an income statement ( Epstein, 2006 ) .Paul ( 1992 ) shows that stock monetary value need non supply efficient inducements in a multi-task scene because monetary value gaining controls the value of the house instead than the value-added by the dire ctor. Ittner et Al ( 1997 ) argues that fiscal steps entirely may non supply the most efficient agencies to actuate directors to move in the mode desired by the house s proprietors. While companies use a assortment of fiscal and non-financial public presentation steps in their one-year CEO fillip programs, about all companies rely on some step of accounting net income such as net income, pre-tax income, or operating net income. Accounting net income measured over short intervals is non, nevertheless, a peculiarly good step of the CEOs part to tauten value, for several grounds. First, CEOs routinely make determinations ( such as sequence planning or R & A D investings ) that will increase long-term value but non short-term net income. Second, accounting net incomes ( like equity-based steps ) are constantly influenced by factors outside of the control of the CEO, including the effects of concern rhythms, universe oil monetary values, natural catastrophes, terrorist onslaughts, etc. Third, while the steps of accounting net incomes typically used in fillip programs take into history both grosss and disbursals, they ignore the chance cost of the capital employed. The usage of these accounting steps provides inducements to put in both lying-in that earns positive accounting net incomes ( non merely those that earn more than the cost of capital ) , and provides no inducements to abandon undertakings gaining positive accounting net incomes that are less than those needed to cover their cost of capital ( Murphy, 2013 ) .Non-financial public presentation stepsNon-financial public presentation steps consists of steps of employee satisfaction, merchandise or service quality, efficiency or productiveness, employee safety, market portion, non-financial strategic aims, surgical process betterments and re-engineering, new merchandise development, invention, employee development and preparation, work force diverseness, leading and client satisfaction ( Ittner et al, 1997 ) . Recent grounds indicates that i?rms are progressively utilizing non-i?nancial public presentation steps such as client satisfaction and merchandise quality in the catching procedure at bottom i?rms ( Ittner et al, 1997 ) . Anterior literature shows that noni?nancial public presentation can counterbalance for noise and end incongruence of i?nancial public presentation steps. Another desirable undertaking property of noni?nancial steps is their ability to foretell future public presentation and to ease intertemporal fiting between current investings and future returns ( Matejka et al. , 2009 ) . Non-financial public presentation steps are assumed to ease the board s appraisal of private managerial information so it can more closely supervise the executive decision-making procedure ( Schiehll and Bellavance, 2009 ) . The ground for the usage of non-financial steps in compensation contracts is that they provide information incremental to accounting steps in rewarding and motiv ation directors ( Davila and Venkatachalam, 2004 ) .Fiscal CrisisPearson and Clair ( 1998 ) developed a definition for organisational crisis An organisational crisis is a low-probability, high-impact event that threatens the viability of the organisation and is characterized by ambiguity of cause, consequence, and agencies of declaration, every bit good as by a belief that determinations must be made fleetly. Several illustrations of organisational crisis are Extortion, Bribery, Hostile coup detat, Information sabotage, Terrorist onslaught, Executive kidnaping, Product callback, Natural catastrophe that destroys corporate central offices ( Pearson and Clair, 1998 ) .The fiscal crisis started in family line 2008. Assorted causes of the i?nancial crisis have been cited, including slack ordinance over mortgage loaning, a turning lodging bubble, the rise of derived functions instruments such as collateralized debt duties, and questionable banking patterns ( Kothari and Lester, 2012 ) . This research is concentrating on this fiscal crisis, which started in September 2008, and is still go oning at the minute of composing this thesis.Ittner et Al. ( 1997 ) argues that as the noise in fiscal steps increases, houses tend to put more weight on non-financial steps. At the other side, Matejka et Al. ( 2009 ) i?nd that proi?t urgency and i?nancial hurt ( which make i?nancial public presentation steps more congruent with i?rm ends ) are associated with a lower accent on noni?nancial public presentation steps.Hypothesis developmentAlthough old literature us non consistent the usage of non-financial public presentation steps in times of fiscal crisis, more recent research ( Matejka et al. , 2009 ) leads to the premise that the usage of non-financial public presentation steps in CEO fillip contracts will drop during the current fiscal crisis. Based on this premise, the following hypothesis is developedHypothesis 1 The usage of non-financial public presentation steps in CE O fillip contracts has been decreased from 2005 to 2010, due to the impact of the fiscal crisis.III. MethodologyThis subdivision describes the research methods used to expect into the empirical association between the fiscal crisis and the usage of non-financial public presentation steps.SampleA mark sample of 27 houses is identified from Dutch companies listed on the Amsterdam Exchange Index ( AEX ) at the beginning of the twelvemonth 2013. No differentiation is made between different sectors, all AEX-listed companies were taken in the sample. data aggregationData was collected from proxy statements in one-year studies in two different old ages. To mensurate the consequence of the fiscal crisis, the first twelvemonth which had been measured is 2005, since during 2005 no influence of the fiscal crisis could be perceived. The 2nd twelvemonth which is used to roll up informations, is the twelvemonth 2010. 2010 has been chosen because it was in the center of the fiscal crisis and all informations is now available from this twelvemonth. This research surveies the comparative weights placed on fiscal and non-financial public presentation steps in main executive officer ( CEO ) fillip contracts ( Ittner et al, 1997 ) . This method is similar to the method adopted by Ittner et Al ( 1997 ) and used by Schiehll and Bellavance ( 2009 ) .VariablesThe empirical theoretical account of this research will be as followY = I + I?1Xi +I?2XiWhere Y will incorporate the dependant variable usage of non-financial public presentation steps, I?1 will dead end for the state of affairs of the usage of a non-financial public presentation step in 2005 ( 0 will stand for the usage of a fiscal public presentation step in 2005, and 1 will stand for the usage of a non-financial public presentation step in 2005 ) , I?2 will stand for the state of affairs of the usage of a non-financial public presentation step in 2010 ( 0 will stand for the usage of a fiscal public presentation step in 2010 , and 1 will stand for the usage of a non-financial public presentation step in 2010 ) , and Xi contains the house.

Natural Law Theory

According to Jenkins, The natural law conjecture begins with theories ab push through the tempera custodyt and conception of the world and moves on to ask about the take of every action or object. The good thing to do is that which fulfils the natural purpose. Natural law was developed by Thomas doubting Thomas, in which he believed that in that compliancy is much(prenominal) a thing as natural chaste law. Natural law ethics awaits on the belief that the world was designed by a creator, God. It teaches everything God made has a purpose, including every aspect of gracious life, and everything should work towards the purpose assigned to it.If we fulfil this purpose we do hefty, for example it is corking to preserve life (Do not kill). If we frustrate the purpose for which aboutthing has been created then it is mor eithery wrong, to destroy life is against the pull up stakes of good. In addition, military man sexuality was designed for the reproduction of the species. Any action which helps towards the fulfil custodyt of this purpose is good anything which hinders this fulfilwork forcet is bad. Aquinas believed in that respect were four primary precepts, Gods aims for charitables, which we ar to fol beginning to live according to natural law.These argon to reproduce, learn and develop potential, live harmoniously in society and worship god. These precepts argon moral absolutes and down the stairs no circumstances stool be broken. Natural law is therefore a deontological theory. According to Aquinas natural law was the, moral code which mankind beings argon naturally inclined towards. There argon also the secondary precepts to take into account, which are the rules and regulations which help us achieve these aims. These are actually man made laws which are based on Gods principles.Natural law is a fusion of the secular philosophy of Aristotle (who claimed that everything had a purpose and therefore the fulfilment of these purposes was goo d, e. g. a good knife cuts well) and the apparitional tradition of the church by Aquinas. Natural law was to be a supplement of the laws given in the scriptures and draws much inspiration from the bible. Paul in Romans 1-3 argues that the moral law of God is evident from the nature of worlds and the world, Ever since the creation of the world, his invisible nature, has been intelligibly perceived in the things that have been made. (Romans 120) In Matthew 193-9, Jesus observes that natural law should make it clear that disarticulate is wrong, For your hardness of heart Moses allowed you to divorce your wife, but from the beginning it was not so. Marriage was designed for the building up of the married couple by each other and for birth and secure fostering of children divorce goes against Gods aim. Peter Mullen, Working with Morality, states, Reason and the regularities of the natural world should be your guide. Though are ability to soil we can originate a sense of right a nd wrong.We can think superfluously for ourselves and discover Gods intention and follow natural law. In other haggle we must use our flat coating powers in order to work out what is moral. This helps us deal with ethical issues which are not dealt with in the scripture e. g. euthanasia. In his book, Summa Theologiae, Aquinas maintained that we have four cardinal virtues (cardo meaning a hinge) on which are morality hinges and these four things inform as reason as well as the Decalogue. It has also maintained that we have seven capital vices. The cardinal virtues are prudence, justice, fortitude and self control.Pursing what is morally right exit help us to develop these virtues and vice versa. The seven sins of morality are just the vices of pride, avarice, lust, envy, gluttony, anger and sloth. Aquinas maintains that these, in contrast with the four virtues are altogether opposed to achieving the goals set out for pityings in natural law. These natural virtues are expanded by the revealed virtues of faith, try for and charity derived from St Paul in Corinthians and Aquinas held that the greater the extent to which these are developed by the individual, the greater the obedience will be to natural law. (Vardy and Grosch) When people sin according to Aquinas, it is because they are pursue what they think is good. benignant nature is generally good and therefore if we do wrong it is because we are in hunting of an imagineming good, e. g. abortion, can seem ilk at a good thing at times. According to Vardy and Grosch, military personnels seek apparent good, but this is not true good only apparent good because it does not conform to the perfection of benignant nature which all humans share. A diachronic example would be that of Hitler and Stalin, who did not seek out evil but sought what they thought, was right.The theory of natural law states that you are only responsible for the immediate consequences of your actions not for the secondary or un intended set up of your action. This adds flexibility to the theory of natural law in much(prenominal) areas as just war and etopic pregnancy. According to Thompson, Natural law is based on nature as seen by human reason enlightened by Christian faith. In the light of Jesus teaching and belief in God, reason can decide, by looking at nature, what is right. Natural law however has some faults. It depends on the belief that the world was designed by a creator.Aquinas assumes that all men must seek to worship God, atheists not taken into consideration. According to Thompson, if someone does not believe in God, then the natural law theory loses its foundation. The theory also suggests that reproduction is one of Gods natural purposes of creating humankind, not considering those who are biologically incapable of having children. Thirdly, naturalistic fallacy, there is a problem with the guess that just because something is a matter of fact in nature does not mean it ought to be obe yed by everyone. Hume argued that what is the case and what ought to be the case are varied ideas.According to Jenkins, sex does produce babies by this does not necessarily mean that people ought to have sex only for this purpose. In some situations it may be needful to against natural law to achieve a better end result, natural law is too flexible. According to Peter Mullen, it may be prerequisite, for example to spin an innocent person to save the lives of thousands. Finally, how do we define what is natural and what isnt, there are some introductory ideals but these are too vague to nurse to specific situations. For example should we try to prolong the life of someone who is ill, for death is the natural result?Natural law also puts too much strain on human reason. Human reason can be corrupted by sin, e. g. holocaust. However there are strengths of the natural law theory. First of all, it is a public guide. It provides humanity with a set of common moral principles an d can be sued if you are religious or not (Aristotle). Secondly it is a simple, unbiased set of rules we look at the evidence of the natural world and lend oneself our reason to consider if something is right or wrong. And thirdly, the principles of natural law can be applied to solve pecific moral problems casuistry. In conclusion, The natural law is written and en weighed d protestd in the soul of each and every man because it is human reason ordaining him to do good and forbidding him to do sin. (Pope Leo XIII) It is claimed that everyone holds legitimise fundamental rights simply by virtue of being human. Some argue that rights are a modern western invention, rights are something constructed by a historical culture, seeking self justification for its own purpose to expand the notions and even to impose them on other cultures regardless of their traditional ways.The words human rights have come to mean the political norms and prescriptions that are found in international hu man rights documents such as the European Convention of Human Rights(1950) or the United Nations firmness of Human Rights(1948). They deal with the way in which people should be treated by their government and its institutions. This paper proposes to develop the argument that making human rights universal is problematic, this will be done by firstly looking at the historical development of the concept of human rights, secondly the approaches taken towards questioning the validity or justification of the precept.Finally, to explore cultural, religious as well as sex differences which interact making human rights difficult if not problematic to universally enforce. Historical Origins and development and creation of the theory and utilisation The roots of human rights doctrine can be traced back to the times of Aristotle and Stoics. In his Nicomachean Ethics Aristotle creates the basis for the existence of a natural moral order. This would provide a potentially universal criterion for evaluating the authority of man made legal clays.Aristotle tracees natural justice and legal justice, Natural justice is that which has same value everywhere and does not depend on acceptance But the concept of rights akin to that of the contemporary idea of human rights most clearly emerges during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in Europe and the so called doctrine of natural law. The doctrine of Natural Law held belief in the existence of a natural moral code based upon the identification of certain fundamental and objectively identifiable human goods. John Locke argued that individuals possess natural rights, ndependently of political recognition given to them by the state. He posits the idea that people held such rights one by one of and prior to the formation of any political community, natural law thus is to perceive Gods will which truly gave an authentic moral code. Locke provided the precedent of establishing legitimate political authority upon a rights fou ndation. Compassionate to the works of the Ancient Greeks and earlier philosophers such as Pufendorf, 18TH century German Philosopher Immanuel Kant, who held that, moral reasoning relied upon the develop that all rational individuals are bound to assent.His notion of the categorical imperative, doing the right thing is not determined by acting in pursuit of ones own interest or desires but acting in agreement with the maxim which all rational individuals are to accept. So the act the maxim of which your will can at the same time be universal law The philosophical ideals defended by Kant and Locke come to be associated with general enlightenment project during the seventeenth and 18th centuries. Ideals such as human dignity and equality enshrined in the US Declaration of independence and the French National Assemblys Declaration of Man.Similarly continued through the 19th century in various political movements to extend the political suffrage to those that were denied political and civil rights. The full answer of the doctrine of human rights occurred in the 20th century in response to the atrocities epitomized by the holocaust. The United Nations Declaration of Human Rights, enshrining fundamental human rights was adopted by the normal Assembly on the 10th of December 1948. One should note that the modern doctrine of human rights is not a mere expression of the natural rights concept rather it goes beyond it in some respects.James Nickel promotes three ways in which contemporary concept of human rights differs from and goes beyond that of natural rights. Firstly, modern human rights are more interested in viewing equality as requiring positive action by the state for instance providing welfare assistance. Whereas natural rights promoters were sharp to view equality in more formalistic terms, fundamentally requiring the state to refrain from interfering in individuals lives.Secondly, where promoters of natural rights tended to conceive of human beings as m ere individuals, advocates of contemporary human rights are far keener to accept the importance of family and community in individual lives. And thirdly, Nickel views modern human rights as more internationalist in content and orientation than was typically found within arguments in support of natural rights. One can clearly understand the final assertion, since at once human rights are increasingly seen as requiring international action and concern.For the well-being of the discourse, drawing this distinction amongst natural rights and modern human rights allows one to distinguish the development of the concept of human rights. It will also be beneficial to see the different approaches to human rights a well as the categories of human rights. much(prenominal) discussion of the nature of human rights will demonstrate whether in Raschs view human rights cannot be justified as a universalising project. Concepts of Human Rights There are two categories that are fundamental to under stand basis and potential for the application of human rights.Legal rights these are the rights found in existing legal codes, thus benefit from the recognition and protection of the law. Disputes as to its existence can be resolved by referring to the relevant legal instrument, a legal right cannot exist prior to its passing into law, the limits of which its validity are set by the jurisdiction of the body which passes relevant legislation. Moral rights are not rights in the strict sense, better to see them as moral claims which have the potential to be incorporated into national and international law.For a legal positivist like Jeremy Bentham, there can be no such thing as human rights existing prior to or independently from legal codification. In contrast, Moral rights can exist independently from their legal foil. It has been argued that the black majority in Apartheid South Africa possessed a moral right to full political participation in that countries political system althoug h no such legal right existed. When rights exist at international train, we speak of them as human rights, but when they are enacted at national level we see them as civil or constitutional right.To develop this even further, one can question the validity of human rights. Firstly, the interests theory approach, which holds that the principle affair of human rights is to protect and promote certain key human interests. John Finnis contends, human rights are justifiable on the grounds of their instrumental value for securing the necessary conditions of human well being. The Choice or Will theory, on the other hand aims to establish philosophical validity of human rights upon a single human attribute the capacity for exemption.Proponents of this theory argue that rights are a manifestation of the exercise of personal autonomy, the distinctive feature of human agency which should be the total concern of rights. Human rights and Universality In identifying the historical roots of huma n rights and some basic general conceptual and justificatory approaches to the topic, the question whether human rights are universal is to ask whether there are good reasons for believing that the norms and prescriptions contained in the international documents symbolising apply to and obligate all human beings equally, regardless of their cultural, fond or geographical location.The argument posed by Rasch is that human rights possess personal character which means in spirit that they cannot intrinsically adhere to the cultural, religious and social differences. This contention will be the basis of the remaining space of this essay. Rasch holds, that some(prenominal) Rawls, Habermas who were inspired by the Kantian project of discerning the rational club of human society is the project of a universalist ideology that is homogenous and self justificatory.In other words he is arguing that the natural laws which initially held basic rights of individuals is Christianized. Such is the essence of human rights that truly they cannot be all inclusive and ever embracing. Raschs assertion must be examined closely, paying contingent attending to the issue about the norms and values inherent in western human rights are not the basis for human rights in all corners of the plane Rawls claimed that human rights specify limits to a regimes internal autonomy and that their fulfillment is sufficient to exclude justified and forceful interventions by diplomatic and economic sanctions or in grave cases of military force. Indeed, it is a generalization to suggest there is a line defined by human rights where national reign ends. The reason being, fulfillment of human rights is a very unclear idea, because no country fully satisfies human rights, all countries have human rights problems, some large many a(prenominal) swinish violations. One of the most significant challenges to contemporary human rights is the presumed objective basis of the doctrine as moral rights.On t his view moral principles are inherently essential in character in that they express individuals incomplete preferences Protagoras claimed that no persons perspectives can be said to be more correct than anothers, because each is the fix judge of his or her experiences In modern times, such arguments have been defended by the likes of Richard Rorty, who argues that human rights are based on sentimental vision of humanity, that human rights are not rationally defensible and fundamentally are emanated by sympathetic identification with others as opposed to reason.Kant differentiated between modes of expressions into objective and congenital propositions. He asserted that if an individuals analysis is not accepted universally then it remains the moral position of the individual, thus a distinction between law and morality. In other words, one cannot assert their moral views and principles on others and expect them to be accepted. Knowledge acquired essentially should be objective i n form.But subjective acquisition of knowledge as Kant apothegm, through individual reasoning or moral law of the individual, acceptance of it will raise the individuals knowledge, thus knowledge is a steady cultural effort, In contrast, Michael Foucault argued that acquisition of knowledge should be subjective , he held that truth is the instrument of power which should be used to strengthen knowledge.Human rights are related to moral convictions moral convictions are determined by underlying cultural commitments underlying commitments differ fundamentally from one culture to another therefore, the comment of human rights must vary fundamentally across cultures. Cultural Relativism is the most fashionable attempts to challenge the universality of human rights. One may suspect that Islamic and Asian critics of human rights suppose that their own views are in fact superior to Western ideas, and that everyone would be better off if their views came to prevail universally. Because u ltures differ, and because human rights must vary accordingly, no one culture can go around trying to impose its view of human rights on others. Islams characterization of human rights is based on its followers holding true to the word of the religion. A Islamic sees rights much in the same was as a Hindu, a serial of duties to the creator, in order to attain the higher freedom of enlightenment at death. The publication of Satanic Verses by Salman Rushdie which offended Muslims worldwide, highlights how the western concept of human rights, to free speech can be incompatible with Sharia law.It is undeniable that the international community derives its values from a liberal consensus that is in essence a secularized Christian ethic. The traditionalist Muslims have not been the only critics of the western standard of human rights, until very recently the Catholic Church has been a strong opposition to what it saw as a conquest over the values of Christian community. The hearts of mon otheistic religions are in conflict with the basis of human rights.Human rights doctrine is humancentric essentially based on the responsibility and autonomy of the individual, the doctrine takes its premise in the authority of the state i. e. secularism and as its primary aim, to prevent abuse of power by the state over the individual. While monotheistic religions emphasis the will of god through the community. A study of prominent religion and development journals revealed that religion and spiritualty are under represented in development literature and in the policies and programmes of development organizationsThe unique case of Re A (Conjoined Twins Surgical separation), where doctors wished to enjoin Siamese twins otherwise both would have died, the parents opposed the operating theater on religious grounds, though the hospital and courts were choosing the lesser of two evils in that if the operation was not carried out the twins would die but if the operation went ahead one would live, the operation was allowed. Such a judgment is clearly confrontational with the religious duty of individuals.Furthermore, cultural imperialisms impact on human rights Cultures are compelled to accept apparent universal standards because they are pressured to do so by more all-powerful cultures. Donnelly, contends that the American human rights regime can be explained by the power that lies within it, He believes that the dominant power of united states, in exercising its tyrannical power ensures support and creation of its interests. Essentially, human rights as an objective project is in reality established on subjective norms.The planetary institutions developed, in the hope to exercise their view of human rights through creation of instruments in the form of universal declarations or agreements, to which all cultures agree to, comply. The preamble to the United Nations accept, demonstrates the clear declaration of universal intention by all member states to agree to a universal set of standards and norms. Who were behind the utopian ideal? The creation of United Nations was a result of recommendations by United Kingdom and the United States, the new cultural imperialists. We the United States recognise and accept our deep involvement in the destiny of men everywhere Such was the sentiment expressed by President Eisenhower. During the creation of the UN and even today the membership is still increasingly western with a low presence of Asian, African or Arab membership. USA evidently believed it was responsible for peace, security and human rights over other cultures, naturally ensuring that their values and norms become universal and dominant.In addition, the mission for Saudi Arabia to the committee drafting the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1947, expressed that the committee for the most part taken into consideration only standards recognised by western civilisation The delegation contended that the committee was not to procla im the superiority of one civilization over all others or to establish coherent standards for all the countries in the worldRawls argued that human rights are international and universal in that they apply to all individuals everywhere, however, such sentimental objections outlined are unremarkably expressed by not only Middle Eastern states but also Asian countries like China, the reason for this is that Asian Values place the good of the community over those of the individual, one can deduct that there isnt universal consensus on the subject of human rights. Western values inherent in international human rights documents such as the UDHR are in what one can term cultural conflict as there is a showdown of difference in values and norms.What can also be deduced from the lack of consensus, is that rights are culture specific, Human rights appear in the context of particular social, economic, cultural and political conditions. This is unquestionably true, since what circumstances brought about human rights in the west cannot be said to exist elsewhere. China has echoed such attitude in a 1991 white paper owing to tremendous differences in historical background, social system, cultural tradition and economic development, countries differ in their understanding and practice of human rightsThe dominance of western thought or ideological heritage in eastern or different legal jurisdictions will not necessarily be accepted rather what should happen is that human rights should be considered in the context of a dynamic and evolving process of international norm-setting, bearing in intellectual the significance of national and regional peculiarities and various historical, cultural, and religious backgrounds In line with the last mentioned point, the issue of political reign is worth noting.A state has national sovereignty to determine matters of human rights locally, rather than relying on international agencies to out-of-doorly determine national affairs. The i ssue of human rights falls by and large within the sovereignty of each state. In 1995, the Chinese government confirmed its opposition to some countries hegemonic acts of using a double standard for the human rights of other countries . . . and imposing their own pattern on others, or interfering in the internal affairs of other countries by using human rights as a pretext. The Wests attempt to apply universal standards of human rights to developing countries is disguised cultural imperialism and an attempt to obstruct their development. It can be emphasized that human rights are harms which the law commits and heals through human rights. They are concerned with the terrible rather than with achieving the best. Their aim is achieving minimally good lives for all people, or so it is claimed. For instance, Article 3 Universal Declaration of Human Rights Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person. As outlined earlier in the discourse, legal rights are in essence hum an rights as their basic action is to extend theoretical recognition and respect to all. But, New rights creating new ways of being in common with others else where open the boundaries of community. Karl Marx insisted that political community both upholds and denies universality of rights since rights support and are supported in turn by the inequalities of economy and culture.Economic exploitation of the urban poor through unemployment, low paid wages, poor health of developing countries through unequal trade and rising debt undermines and ultimately destroys the prospect of self determination when daily survival is the order of the day all aspirations for social improvement or cultural expression are quenched. Thomas pogge argues that basic human rights ambit of securing life, liberty and security has not been fulfill That world poverty is an ongoing harm we inflict seems completely incredible to most citizens of the affluent countries. We call it tragic that the basic human rig hts of so many remain unfulfilled If it is accepted, that affluent nations such as USA, France and the UK are the beneficiaries of advancing the universality of human rights and the doctrine is inherently favorable to them, then what Pogge argues is the nexus between our global institutional order and the persistence of severe poverty , then the injustice of such an order can also be accepted.It cannot be denied that the values of the consumer society cannot be applied to societies that have nothing to consume, since talking about universal rights is rather like saying that the rich and the poor both have the same right to fly first class and to sleep under bridges. What is justified in Britain in terms of legal rights cannot totally be the same in Malaysia. Clearly, there is a distinction of what law is and what is morally correct from the view of collective individuals, community and ultimately a nation.Rights promoting the equality of sexes are a contentious point The Convention for the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) was adopted by UN General Assembly in 1979, it codified womens right to equality in all spheres of life as a global norm. Article 2(f) of the convention imposes positive obligation on member states to modify or abolish customs and practices which discriminate against women. Cultural differences have practical implications. Whether womens human rights can be universal is at a moot point, since some cultures are seen as patriarchal like Islam and Buddhism.But a controversial but pertinent example of an approach that seeks to strengthen cultural integrity and individual freedom is Indias Muslim Women (Protection of Rights Upon Divorce) Act. This legislation was enacted after the case of Shah Banu, the Supreme Court of India upheld the right of a divorced Muslim woman to alimony, prompting outrage from Muslim traditionalists who claimed this violated their religious beliefs that divorced women were only entitled t o the return of the bride price paid upon marriage.The Indian parliament then passed a law to override the courts judgment, under which Muslim women married under Muslim law would be obliged to accept the return of the bride price as the only payment of alimony. F. Raday claims that the most widespread inequality women face is the treating of women as housewives or mothers and not being able to integrate fully in the public domain. Equality, despite assertions of Declarations and Constitutions that women are like men and that women are different from men is a political construct, as Hegel and Marx argued which is expressed through the legal.The law as Hegel argued is ill equipped to accommodate difference human rights claims therefore involve an inconsistent dialectic between an impossible demand for universal equality that is identifiable with the western man. From the above discussion, it has been expounded that human rights cannot be suddenly universal to accommodate societal d ifferences. What is universally different lies in the cultural as well as religious and gender dissimilarities that is the backbone to incomplete consensus on the subject of human rights.Common Western cultural roots are the basis of international treaties establishing so called universal human rights, leading non western cultures to conform to discriminative norms. The knowledge promulgated in the doctrine is inherently subjective in character embodying the dominant cultural preferences. In reply to William Rasch, human rights cannot totally be justified as they are not completely and entirely impartial so as to accommodate cultural disparity.To paraphrase Oona Hathaway International public opinion have often been lured that (in the words of Columbia Law professor Louis Henkin) intimately all nation observe most all principles of international law and almost all of their obligations almost all of the times. This assertion can definitely be regarded as false when it comes to Huma n Rights. Examples can be found involving almost all the countries almost all of the times. It took America nearly forty years to ratify, with qualifying conditions the 1948 Genocide Convention.France has never transcripted in its national law the UN Charter for the Rights of Children (which has never been ratified by the USA). Last but not least, most of the genocides that have been perpetrated since the end of World War II, have taken place in countries ships company to the already quoted 1948 Genocide Convention (Rwanda, Yugoslavia, Iraq, etc). In fact, it seems impossible to imagine a way of enforcing Human Rights when one reckons that it is already impossible to enforce the principles of international law. Indeed, the respect of international agreements is completely left to the will of the nations parties to these agreements.The respect (or non-respect) of a signed treaty is a matter of sovereignty and no sanction can be envisaged but a military intervention violating this co ncept of sovereignty. This is also Carlos Santiago Ninos stance according to this author the most serious limitation of the system of enforcing Human Rights is that the still current conception of sovereignty of states impose severe restrictions on the obligations that governments accept by their commitment and on the forms of intervention available to external organs for investigating and punishing Human Rights violations.The conception of a potential international normative system has to clash with the ideal of self determination because there is no global civil society. Or in Chris Browns words properly understood, civil society requires an effective state, while global civil society is characteristically seen as a substitute for such a political order. Furthermore, it may be doubted that the mind-set required to make a civil society work actually exists in the world today.For that reason, the application of treaties in the different countries stayed a matter of self-determinati on and self-policing, leading, of course, to consequent opportunities of Human Rights breaches, and impeaching nearly all attempts in enforcing Human Rights.5754 wordsBibliography Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) European Convention of Human Rights (1950) The Convention for the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (1979) Re A (2002) Court of Appeal (Civil Division) 2000 3 FCR 577 United Nations Press Release MEMBERSHIP OF PRINCIPAL UNITED NATIONS ORGANS IN 2005 http//www. un. rg/News/Press/docs/2005/org1436. doc. htm Charter of The United Nations http//www. un. org/News/Press/docs/2005/org1436. doc. htm Secondary Sources Books Douzinas and A. Gearey, Critical jurisprudence (Hart Publishing 2005) W. A. 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